Spark Engagement: Toolkits for Middle School Educators

These engaging, thought-provoking books support literacy growth and critical thinking. Expand students’ perspectives, spark meaningful discussions, and foster a stronger love of reading with animal-focused full-length texts.  

✅ Incorporate these titles into whole-class or book club reading units. 

✅ Add them to recommended reading lists. 

✅ Incorporate some into your classroom library. 

• Amanda the Teen Activist: Feathers & Freedom (6-8)
• Animalkind (8) ➡️ Watch Animalkind Documentary ➡️ Host a Student-Led Animalkind Book Club 
• Bear Boy: The True Story of a Boy, Two Bears, and the Fight to Be Free (8) 
• Claude and Medea: The Hellburn Dogs (6-7)
• Liberation Summer (6)
• Saving Animals: A Future Activist’s Guide (6-7)
• Unlocking the Animal World: Incredible Facts and How Kids Can Be Superheroes for Animals (in English & Spanish) ➡️ See accompanying videos and learning materials. (6)

✅ Each TeachKind Rescue Story comes with a reading comprehension worksheet and video that tells a different animal’s story of transformation. Students will interact with the texts through key vocabulary and questions to encourage literal, inferential, and evaluative thinking. 

➡️ Check out our Kahoot: “Mayflower the Turkey, a Thanksgiving Story”

➡️ TeachKind’s Rescue Stories worksheets were used in a study that found that students who read passages about having compassion for animals performed significantly better on Common Core–aligned assessments, demonstrating that instructional time need not be sacrificed in order to instill empathy in young people! 

This collection of 10 one-page reading passages exploring the inner lives of animals will inspire students to read, discuss, and write about what they learn. The articles feature cephalopods, chickens, cows, ducks and geese, fish, frogs, pigs, rats and mice, sheep, and turkeys, helping students build knowledge while strengthening literacy and critical-thinking skills.

✅ Read the articles in groups. 

✅ Encourage discussion and note-taking. 

✅ Assign written responses: summary; creative or narrative writing of the animals’ lives; and further research.

➡️ Learn 39 Ways That Animals Are Just Like Us

This engaging lesson naturally motivates students to think critically about language, categorization, and the ways humans perceive animals. Through discussion, close reading, and written reflection, students will strengthen key literacy and communication skills, including critical thinking, perspective-taking, evidence-based reasoning, speaking and listening, and analytical writing.  

✅Challenge common assumptions about animals and the language used to describe them. 

✅ Promote meaningful discussion while building empathy, curiosity, and deeper comprehension skills. 

As an educator, you have the opportunity to celebrate the accomplishments of women in your classroom and raise awareness of inequality and the importance of speaking up. As you explore this issue in class, studentscan brainstorm in groups various ways that animals are poorly treated, to help foster the realization that all beings are interconnected and compassion is essential. Working together, teachers and students can help end oppression of all kinds. 

✅Discuss responses as a class to the video and article, using the concept of compassion for all beings—both human and otherwise—to guide the conversation.

This thought-provoking reading introduces students to lesser-known aspects of influential civil rights leaders’ lives, encouraging them to make connections between social movements, empathy, and personal values. As students explore the perspectives of figures such as Coretta Scott King, Angela Davis, Rosa Parks, Dexter Scott King, and Alice Walker, they will strengthen important literacy and critical-thinking skills, including analyzing informational text, identifying themes, drawing connections across historical movements, and supporting ideas with textual evidence. 

✅Socratic Seminar 
Students lead a structured, whole-class discussion exploring themes such as empathy, justice, activism, and the connections between civil rights and animal rights. Students write and ask the discussion questions, and must cite evidence from the text to support their ideas. 
 
Students should come prepared with four different types of questions: clarification, analysis, evaluative, perspective-taking, real-world connection, implication, and philosophical/ethical.  

✅ Claim-Evidence-Reasoning (CER) Writing 
Students respond to a prompt such as, “How are social justice movements connected?” by developing a claim, supporting it with evidence from the article, and explaining their reasoning.  

✅ Quotation Analysis 
Students choose a meaningful quotation from the article and analyze its meaning, significance, and impact in a written paragraph or short presentation.   

✅ Vocabulary and Rhetoric Study 
Students analyze persuasive language, tone, and rhetorical strategies used in the article and discuss how these techniques influence readers.   

✅ Personal Reflection Journal 
Students reflect on how learning about these activists changed or challenged their thinking about compassion, justice, or activism.

✅ Four Corners Debate 
Present the following statements inspired by the article. Students move to corners representing strongly agree, agree, disagree, or strongly disagree and defend their positions with evidence and reasoning.

These short articles will strengthen reading comprehension, vocabulary, empathy, and speaking skills. Students will stay engaged as they practice important literacy skills, such as identifying main ideas, making inferences, summarizing, and citing textual evidence.

✅ Vocabulary Pre-Teaching 
Introduce key vocabulary words before reading.  

✅ Partner or Small-Group Reading 
Pair ELLs with supportive peers to encourage collaborative reading, discussion, and comprehension.  

✅ Sentence Frames and Discussion Starters
“I think the student helped the animal because …” 
“One detail that surprised me was …”
“This story reminds me of …” 
 
✅ Listening and Speaking Practice 
Have students retell a story orally, summarize it to a partner, or participate in group discussions about kindness and empathy.  
 
✅ Visual Literacy Activities 
Ask students to analyze accompanying images and predict what the stories might be about before reading.  

✅ Connection-to-Self Writing 
Encourage students to write or speak about a time they helped an animal or another person.

✅ Inference and Critical-Thinking Practice 
Ask students to infer characters’ feelings, motivations, and challenges using evidence from the text.

➡️ This first-of-its-kind study reveals that animal-focused reading materials can improve student motivation and reading comprehension outcomes.

Animal-focused writing activities inspire students to write by tapping into their natural curiosity and compassion for animals. As students reflect on animals’ experiences and connect them to their own lives, they practice key literacy skills including comprehension, inference, perspective-taking, reflective writing, and explanatory writing. These engaging prompts encourage students to think critically, express empathy, and communicate their ideas through meaningful written responses.

Here’s a Sneak Peek 

🐘 We show each other affection. Elephants are highly social, have strong emotions, and form tight bonds with one another. They feel joy, pleasure, and compassion as well as sadness and grief. After considering this and reflecting on the image, write about a time you showed affection to someone you care about. Describe how you did it and how it likely made the person feel. 

🦎 We’re brave. Did you know iguanas can live for more than 20 years and grow to be more than 6 feet long? Check out this amazing photo, and reflect on why the iguana might be leaping across this distance. Then, describe a time you were brave and took a risk—and explain why. 

🐮 We smile when we’re happy. Just like us, cows are social beings who form friendships. And they’re smart: Researchers have found that cows not only have the ability to figure out problems but also enjoy the intellectual challenge and get excited when they find a solution, just as humans do. Write a reflection on the reasons the cow in the photograph might have felt happiness, and then reflect on a recent time when you felt genuinely happy. 

🫏 We cry when we’re sad or in pain. How do you feel after watching this video of donkeys crying when one of their friends passed away? Describe a time you cried in sadness or pain. How did it feel to express your emotions in this way? How did you feel afterward? 

🐡 We create works of art. What are your thoughts after watching this video of a puffer fish creating beautiful images in the sand to attract a mate? Reflect on the concept of creating art to impress someone else, and then describe how creating art makes you feel. 

Make writing engaging and meaningful throughout the school year by tapping into students’ natural interest in animals. This resource will help students become more thoughtful, engaged, and confident writers as they analyze photographs and videos, infer animals’ thoughts and emotions, and connect those experiences to their own lives. Furthermore, they will practice a range of important literacy skills, including comprehension, inference, critical thinking, reflective writing, explanatory writing, and perspective-taking. 

✅ Bell ringers and daily journal writing  

✅ Writing workshop warm-ups  

✅ Narrative, explanatory, and argumentative writing practice  

✅ Cross-curricular connections to social studies, science, and environmental literacy  

✅ Formative writing assessments  

✅ SEL and advisory activities 

✅ Early-finisher activities and substitute plans 

Encourage critical thinking, perspective-taking, and meaningful discussion with poetry. Through the use of imagery, tone, symbolism, and figurative language, each author asks readers to see the world through the eyes of animals. While reading, annotating, and discussing these poems, students will deepen their literary analysis skills while considering ethical questions about how humans relate to other living beings.

✅ Read the poems with a partner or together as a whole class. 

✅ Annotate the poems, paying close attention to imagery, tone, symbolism, and figurative language.

🐦 “Caged Bird”
by Maya Angelou

🦃 “Point of View”
by Shel Silverstein 

🐖 “The Pig”
by Roald Dahl

Optional Partner Share
Students share their poems and explain how the literary devices help readers understand and empathize with the animal. 

This authentic writing assignment helps students develop a wide range of English Language Arts skills, including research, critical reading, argumentation, evidence-based writing, and audience awareness. As students investigate an animal-related issue, they must evaluate sources, synthesize information, formulate a clear claim, and support their position with relevant evidence. With this assignment focused on the well-being of animals, students will be engaged and motivated to produce thoughtful, high-quality work. The possibility that their letter could influence an actual decision-maker further reinforces the relevance of strong communication skills and demonstrates how writing can be a powerful tool for civic participation and social change. 

Assignment Overview 

Laws and public policies can have a significant impact on animals. In this assignment, students will research a real, contemporary animal-related issue and write a persuasive letter to one of their elected representatives, such as a member of Congress, urging them to take action. 

Goal 
Students will inform their elected representative about the issue, explain why it matters, and persuade them to support a specific solution. 

Step 1: Choose a Real, Contemporary Animal Issue 

Select an animal-related concern that interests you. Conduct research using credible sources to learn about the issue, how it affects animals, and what actions lawmakers can take to address it. 

Step 2: Research the Issue 

As you research, gather information about: 

• The animals and the various ways they are affected 

• The causes of the problem 

• Current laws, policies, or practices related to the issue 

• Proposed solutions 

• Facts, statistics, and expert opinions that support your position 

Be sure to evaluate sources for credibility and accuracy. 

Step 3: Identify the Elected Representative 

Decide which member of Congress to write to:  

• Find Your Senators (choose one) 
• Find Your Representative 

Step 4: Write the Letter 

Address your letter to an elected representative and include the following: 

Introduction

• Introduce yourself. 
• Clearly state the animal issue you are concerned about. 
• Explain why you are writing. 

Body Paragraphs 

• Describe the problem and how it affects animals. 
• Provide evidence from your research. 
• Explain why the issue should matter to lawmakers and the public. 
• Present a specific action you would like the representative to take.* 

Conclusion 

• Summarize your main points. 
• Restate your request. 
• Thank the representative for their time and consideration. 

💡A persuasive letter is strongest when it asks an elected representative to take a clear action, such as: 

• Vote for or against a bill.  
• Sponsor or co-sponsor legislation.  
• Increase funding for a program.  
• Strengthen enforcement of an existing law.  
• Introduce new legislation to address the issue. 

Letters must: 

• Be written in a respectful, professional tone. 
• Include evidence from at least three credible sources. 
• Present a clear claim and supporting reasons. 
• Address a specific action or policy solution. 
• Demonstrate proper letter format. 
• Be approximately 500–750 words. 

Step 4: Send the Letter (Note: Decide if you want students to actually submit letters.) 

Using the elected representative’s online contact form, submit the letter. 

Reflection 

After completing the letters, students will write a brief reflection explaining: 

• Why they chose that particular issue. 
• What they learned during their research. 
• Whether their views changed or became stronger after learning more about the topic. 
• The action(s) they hope the elected representative will take.

🎥 Watch this one-minute video together as a class. 

🗣️ Have a whole-class discussion that invites students to share their responses to the video. 

📄 Read this article, “A Day in the Life of a PETA Fieldworker,” aloud to the class, or students can volunteer to popcorn read. Tip: Pause throughout the article reading to check for comprehension, define vocabulary words, and answer questions. 

🗣️ Have a whole-class discussion that invites students to share their responses to the article. 

✅ Small Group Discussion & Notetaking 

In small groups, students will read and respond to the following questions verbally or in writing. As an option, create heterogeneous groups by including students with different language proficiency levels in each group. 

• Why do some people keep their dogs chained outside instead of keeping them indoors with their families? 
• How does being chained outside affect dogs? What are three sad or difficult things that dogs experience when they’re chained outside? 
• Should there be consequences for humans who don’t provide the animals they’re responsible for with adequate care? Explain your answer. 
• What consequences should there be for humans who keep dogs chained outside? 

Informational Writing 

While referencing their notes, students will write an informational piece in response to this prompt: 
Why should dogs never be forced to live chained up and outdoors 24/7? 

Speech Writing 

After students have explored their thoughts and opinions verbally and in writing about dogs who are forced to live chained up and outdoors 24/7, they could write a mock speech to let others know how difficult life is for these dogs.

✅ Argumentative Writing 

Students choose a debate kit topic as the foundation for a formal argumentative essay. 

Students can: 

• Develop a claim supported by evidence  
• Address counterclaims  
• Evaluate the credibility of sources  
• Cite evidence correctly  
• Revise after expanding their thinking from participating in a peer-to-peer debate  

✅ Rhetorical Analysis 

Students analyze: 

• persuasive techniques  
• logical fallacies  
• emotional vs. logical appeals  
• author’s credibility 
• audience awareness  
• effectiveness of evidence  

✅ Speaking & Listening 

To strengthen public speaking and active listening skills, students participate in: 

• Oxford-style debates  
• Socratic seminars  
• observation discussions (a student-led discussion strategy, split into an inner circle talking about a topic and an outer circle actively listening and observing)  
• panel discussions  
• town hall meetings  

These activities can be used in addition to a writing assignment, or on their own as a summative assignment following a research project. 

✅ Research Skills 

The kits can launch an inquiry project where students: 

• investigate additional sources  
• evaluate bias  
• distinguish fact from opinion  
• synthesize multiple perspectives  
• create annotated bibliographies 

➡️ Bringing Animal Issues into the Classroom: Research and Discussion Topics for High School and College Students 

The following debate kits pair especially well: 

✦ “Should Animals Be Used in Experiments?” 

✦ “Is Animal Agriculture Harmful to the Environment?” 

✦ “Should Marine Mammals Be Held in Amusement Parks?” 

✅ Animal Experiments 

Can accompany units on: 

• scientific ethics  
• medical research  
• biotechnology  
• biomedical innovation  

Students investigate and debate the ethics and effectiveness of using non-animal models in scientific research. 

✅ Animal Agriculture 

Fits into lessons about: 

• ecosystems 
• climate catastrophe   
• loss of biodiversity  
• land use  
• resource management  

Students can analyze environmental data before debating solutions. 

✅ Marine Mammals Used for Entertainment 

Supports units on: 

• ethics 
• animal behavior  
• marine biology  
• conservation 

Students compare the behaviors and physical and psychological health of marine animals in the ocean with those observed in sea parks.

➡️ Bringing Animal Issues into the Classroom: Research and Discussion Topics for High School and College Students 

The following debate kits pair especially well: 

✦ “Is Animal Agriculture Harmful to the Environment?” 

✦ “Should the Commercial Seal Slaughter Be Stopped?” 

✦ “Should Marine Mammals Be Held in Amusement Parks?” 

✅ Animal Agriculture 

Fits into lessons about: 

• climate catastrophe
• ecosystems
• biodiversity loss  
• sustainable food systems  
• resource management  

Students can analyze environmental data and explore how food production affects land, water, wildlife, and greenhouse gas emissions before debating possible solutions. 

✅ Commercial Seal Slaughter 

Supports units on: 

• wildlife health and populations 
• marine ecosystems  
• conservation  
• biodiversity  
• human impacts on the environment  

Students examine the ecological role of seals, evaluate conservation concerns, and consider how human activities affect marine ecosystems. 

✅ Marine Mammals Used for Entertainment 

Connects with studies of: 

• marine ecosystems  
• conservation  
• biodiversity  
• human impacts on wildlife  
• environmental ethics  

Students investigate the ecological roles of marine mammals and compare the needs and behaviors of animals in the wild with those in captivity while discussing whether confining intelligent, social animals for entertainment can be justified

➡️ Bringing Animal Issues into the Classroom: Research and Discussion Topics for High School and College Students 

The following debate kits pair especially well:

✦ “Should Marine Mammals Be Held in Amusement Parks?” 

✦ “Should Animals Be Used in Experiments?”

✦ “Should All Companion Animals Be Spayed and Neutered?”

Students explore how federal, state, and local laws and public policy are developed, implemented, and changed. 

Topics include: 

• animal protection legislation  
• federal and state regulations  
• local ordinances  
• citizen advocacy  
• public policy and civic engagement  

✅ Government & Public Policy 

Supports units on: 

• legislative processes  
• public policy  
• civic participation  
• federalism  
• the role of government  

Students examine how laws affecting animals are  created and enforced, and evaluate whether existing protections safeguard animals from exploitation and harm. 

✅ Students could: 

• draft legislation  
• testify before a mock legislative committee  
• write policy briefs  
• conduct mock public hearings

➡️ Bringing Animal Issues into the Classroom: Research and Discussion Topics for High School and College Students 

The following debate kits pair especially well: 

✦ “Is Animal Agriculture Harmful to the Environment?” 

✦ “Should Animals Be Used in Experiments?” 

✦ “Is It Ethical to Eat Animals?” 

Students explore how attitudes toward the use of animals have evolved throughout history. 

✅ Animal Agriculture 

Connects with studies of: 

• agricultural history  
• industrialization  
• environmental change  
• food systems  
• technological innovation  

Students examine how agricultural practices have evolved over time and evaluate their environmental and societal impacts.  

✅ Animal Experiments 

Supports units on: 

• medical history  
• scientific advancement  
• ethics in history  
• technological innovation  
• public policy  

Students investigate how scientific research has changed over time, exploring historical breakthroughs alongside evolving ethical standards and more effective alternatives to animal experimentation.  

✅ Eating Animals 

Fits into lessons about: 

• cultural traditions  
• changing societal values  
• social reform movements  
• ethics throughout history  
• human-environment interactions  

Students compare historical and modern perspectives on eating animals, examining how cultural norms, laws, and public attitudes have evolved over time. This debate kit could accompany a reading unit of Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle.

➡️ Bringing Animal Issues into the Classroom: Research and Discussion Topics for High School and College Students 

The following debate kits pair especially well: 

✦ “Is Speciesism Unethical?” 

✦ “Is It Ethical to Eat Animals?” 

✦ “Should Animals Be Used in Experiments?” 

Students investigate how beliefs, emotions, biases, and social influences shape the ways people think about and behave toward animals. 

✅ Speciesism 

Supports units on: 

• cognitive dissonance 
• prejudice and discrimination  
• exploitation 
• moral reasoning  
• empathy  
• social identity  

Students examine how beliefs, biases, and social norms shape attitudes toward different species and influence moral decision-making. 

✅ Eating Animals 

Fits into lessons about: 

• cognitive dissonance  
• decision-making  
• attitudes and behavior  
• social influence  
• moral development  

Students explore why people often hold conflicting beliefs and behaviors toward animals—for example, why many people love dogs and cats while eating chickens or wearing the skins of cows. 

✅ Animal Experiments 

Connects with studies of: 

• ethical decision-making  
• empathy  
• moral development  
• critical thinking  
• psychological perspectives on behavior  

Students evaluate how psychological factors, ethical frameworks, and personal values influence opinions about using animals in scientific research.

➡️ Bringing Animal Issues into the Classroom: Research and Discussion Topics for High School and College Students 

The following debate kits pair especially well: 

✦ “Is Speciesism Unethical?” 

✦ “Is It Ethical to Eat Animals?” 

✦ “Should Animals Be Used in Experiments?” 

✦ “Should Marine Mammals Be Held in Amusement Parks?” 

Students examine ethical questions by applying philosophical frameworks, evaluating evidence, and defending their positions with reasoned arguments. 

✅ Speciesism 

Supports units on: 

• ethics  
• moral philosophy  
• justice  
• equality  
• discrimination  

Students examine why favoring one species over another is morally unjustifiable and compare speciesism with other forms of bias and discrimination. 

✅ Eating Animals 

Fits into lessons about: 

• applied ethics  
• moral responsibility  
• universalism 
• rights-based ethics  
• virtue ethics  

Students analyze philosophical arguments against eating animals while evaluating competing ethical frameworks. 

✅ Animal Experiments 

Connects with studies of: 

• bioethics  
• scientific ethics  
• utilitarianism  
• deontology  
• moral reasoning  

Students examine the ethical concerns about using animals in experiments. 

✅ Marine Mammal Captivity 

Supports units on: 

• animal ethics  
• rights 
• environmental ethics  
• personhood  
• moral responsibility  

Students argue that keeping marine mammals in amusement parks is unethical by considering arguments about autonomy, conservation, and human responsibility.

➡️ Bringing Animal Issues into the Classroom: Research and Discussion Topics for High School and College Students 

The following debate kits pair especially well: 

✦ “Is It Ethical to Eat Animals?” 

✦ “Is Speciesism Unethical?” 

✦ “Should Animals Be Used in Experiments?” 

✦ “Is Animal Agriculture Harmful to the Environment?” 

Students analyze how media, language, storytelling, and public messaging shape perceptions of animals and influence public debate. 

✅ Eating Animals 

Supports units on: 

• media framing  
• bias and perspective  
• persuasive writing  
• investigative journalism  
• ethical reporting  

Students examine how food systems are represented in the media and evaluate how word choice, imagery, and storytelling influence public attitudes. 

✅ Speciesism 

Fits into lessons about: 

• representation and stereotypes  
• media bias  
• social movements  
• opinion writing  
• audience analysis  

Students investigate how different groups and issues are portrayed in the media and consider how messaging can shape beliefs about animals. 

✅ Animal Experiments 

Connects with studies of: 

• science communication  
• source evaluation  
• misinformation  
• ethical reporting  
• public opinion  

Students analyze how scientific research involving animals is communicated to the public and evaluate the credibility and framing of different perspectives. 

✅ Animal Agriculture 

Supports units on: 

• environmental journalism  
• investigative reporting  
• misinformation 
• data visualization  
• persuasive campaigns  
• media literacy  

Students evaluate how environmental impacts of food production are reported and use evidence from multiple sources to develop informed arguments.

➡️ Bringing Animal Issues into the Classroom: Research and Discussion Topics for High School and College Students 

• Introduce key concepts using images, videos, and short summaries before assigning readings. 
• Provide a brief overview of the issue and essential vocabulary. 
• Use graphic organizers to help students organize what they already know and what they want to learn. 
• Connect topics to students’ personal experiences, cultures, and perspectives. 

Example: Before debating marine mammal captivity, students can examine images of dolphins in the wild and in amusement parks and discuss observations using sentence frames. 

• Provide student-friendly definitions and examples. 
• Create vocabulary charts with words, visuals, translations, and related terms. 
• Encourage students to use new vocabulary during discussions and writing. 
  
  Some vocabulary terms to preview per subject: 
  • Science: biodiversity, ecosystem, hypothesis, alternative methods  
  • Government: legislation, regulation, policy, advocacy  
  • Ethics: morality, justice, responsibility, rights  
  • Media: bias, credibility, perspective, audience 

Example: Before debating marine mammal captivity, students can examine images of dolphins in the wild and in amusement parks and discuss observations using sentence frames. 

• Offer readings at multiple reading levels. 
• Highlight important evidence within articles. 
• Provide summaries alongside more complex texts. 
• Incorporate the use of multimedia sources, such as videos, interviews, and infographics. 
• Teach strategies for identifying claims, evidence, and reasoning. 

Students can still engage in the same debate questions while accessing information through different formats. 

• Claim-evidence-reasoning (CER) charts  
• Argument maps  
• T-charts comparing perspectives  
• Cause-and-effect diagrams  
• Research note templates
  
  Example:
  • Claim: Marine mammals should not be held in amusement parks.  
  • Evidence: __________
  • Reasoning: This evidence supports my claim because __________. 

• Sharing an opinion:  
  • “I believe ___ because ___.”  
  • “One reason to support this position is ___.”   
• Adding evidence:
  • “According to the article, ___.”  
  • “The evidence suggests ___.”    
• Responding to another perspective: 
  • “I understand your point that ___; however, ___.”  
  • “One counterargument is ___, but ___.”  

• Students can show learning through: 
  • written arguments  
  • oral presentations  
  • visual presentations or infographics  
  • recorded speeches  
  • collaborative debates  
  • annotated evidence charts
  • responses in their home language(s), when appropriate

Students can still engage in the same debate questions while accessing information through different formats. 

• Use partner discussions before whole-class debates. 
• Assign students different roles (researcher, evidence finder, discussion leader, summarizer). 
• Allow students to rehearse arguments before presenting.  
• Use small-group debates before formal debates.  

• Teachers are encouraged to consider adjusting: 
  • the number of sources students analyze,  
  • the complexity of required evidence,    
  • the length of written responses,  
  • the amount of speaking required, and, or  
  • whether students debate independently or with a partner/group.